Karl Marx FRSA[1] Karl Marx in 1875 Born5 May 1818 Trier, Kingdom of Prussia Died14 March 1883 (aged 64) London, England, UK Resting place Tomb of Karl Marx, Highgate Cemetery, London, England, UK ResidenceGermany , France, Belgium, UK NationalityStateless after 1845 Spouse(s)Jenny von Westphalen (m. 1843; d. 1881) Children7, including Jenny, Laura, and Eleanor ParentsHeinrich Marx (father) Henriette Pressburg (mother) RelativesLouise Juta (sister) Jean Longuet (grandson) Philosophy career Karl Marx Karl Marx[7] (German: [ˈ ka ɐ̯ l ˈ ma ɐ̯ ks]; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, journalist and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a middle-class family, Marx studied law and Hegelian philosophy. Due to his political publications, Marx became stateless and lived in exile in London, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels a nd publish his writings. His best-known titles are the 1848 pamphlet, The Communist Manifesto, and the three-volume Das Kapital. His political and philosophical thought had enormous influence on subsequent intellectual, economic and political history and his name has been used as an adjective, a noun and a school of social theory . Marx's theories about society , economics and politics—collectively understood as Marxism—hold that human societies develop through class struggle. In capitalism, this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes (known as the bour geoisie) that control the means of production and th e wor king classes (known as the proletariat) that enable these means by selling their labour power in return for wages.[8] Empl oying a critical approach known as historical materialism, Marx predicted that, like previous socio-economic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism. For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism, owing in part to its instability and crisis-prone nature, would eventuate the working class' development of class consciousness, leadi ng to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a classless, communist s ociet y constituted by a free association of producers.[9] M arx actively pressed for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic emancipation.[10] Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and his work has been both lauded and criticised.[11] His work in economics laid the basis for mu ch of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought.[12][13][14][15] Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marx's work, with many modifying or adap ting his ideas. Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science.[16][17] Life Childhood and early education: 1818–1836 Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843 Paris: 1843–1845 Brussels: 1845–1848 Cologne: 1848–1849 Contents Alma materUniversity of Bonn University of Berlin University of Jena Era19th-century philosophy RegionWestern philosophy SchoolContinental philosophy Marxism Main interests Politics, economics, philosophy , history Notable ideas Surplus value, contributions to the labour theory of value, class struggle, alienation and exploitation of the worker, materialist conception of history Signature Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860 New York Tribune and Journalism The First International and Capital Personal life Family Health Death Thought Influences Philosophy and social thought Human nature Labour , class struggle and false consciousne ss Economy, history and society Legacy Selected bibliography See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading Biographies Commentaries on Marx Fiction works Medical articles External links Articles and entries Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx (17 77–1838 ) and Henriette Pressbur g (1788–1863). He was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a tow n then part of the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.[18] Marx was ethnically Jewish. His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx.[19] His father , as a child known as Herschel, was the first in the line to receive a secular education and he became a lawyer and lived a relatively wealthy and middle-class existence, with his family owning a num ber of Moselle vin eyards. Prior to his son's birth, and after the abrogation of Jewish emancipation in the Rhineland,[20] Herschel converted from Judaism to join the state Evangelical Church of Prussia, ta king on the German forename of Heinrich over the Yiddish Herschel.[21] Marx was a third cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, al so born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland, with whom he became a frequent correspondent in later life.[22] Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and V oltaire. A classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy.[25] In 181 5, He inrich Marx began work as an attorne y and in 1819 moved his family to a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra.[26] His wife, Henriette Pressburg, was a Dut ch Jewish woman from a prosperous business family that later founded the company Philips Electronics. Her sister Sophie Pressbur g (1797–1854) married Lion Philips (1794–1866) and was the grandm other of both Gerard and Anton Philips and great-grandmother to Frits Philips. Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London.[27] Influences Influenced Life Childhood and early education: 1818–1836 Little is known of Marx 's childhood.[28] The third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819.[29] Y oung Marx and his surviving siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie and Caroline, were baptised into the Luth eran Churc h in August 1824 and their mother in November 1825.[30] Young Marx was privately educated by his father until 1830, when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster , Hugo Wyttenb ach, was a friend of his father . By employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conserv ative government. Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832 and discovered that literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students. Considering the distribution of such material a seditious act, the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staf f during Marx's attendance.[31] In October 1835 at the age of 17, Marx travelled to the University of Bonn wishing to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field.[32] Du e to a condition referred to as a "weak chest",[33] Marx was excused from military duty when he turned 18. While at the University at Bonn, Marx joined the Poets' Club, a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the police.[34] Mar x also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society (Landsmannschaft der Treveraner), at one point serving as club co-president.[35] Additionally , Marx was involved in certain disputes, some of which became serious: in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the university's Borussian Korps.[36] Although his grades in the first term were good, they soon deteriorated, leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic University of Berlin.[37] Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier , Marx became more serious about his studies and his life. He became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated baroness of the Prussian ruling class who had known Marx since childhood. As she had broken off her engagement with a young aristocrat to be with Marx, their relationship was socially controversia l owing to the differences between their religious and class origins, but Marx befriended her father Ludwig von Westphalen (a libe ral aristocrat) and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.[38] Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June 1843 they got married in a Protestant church in Kreuznach.[39] In October 1836, Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating in the university's faculty of law and renting a room in the Mittelstrasse.[40] Although studying law , he was fascinated by philosophy and looked for a way to combine the two, believing that "without philosophy nothing could be accomplished".[41] M arx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical circles.[42] Durin g a convalescence in Stralau, he joined the Doctor's Club (Doktorklub), a student group which discussed Hegelian ideas and through them became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians i n 183 7. Th ey gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer, with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with Adolf Rutenberg. Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society, poli tics and religion from a leftist perspective.[43] Marx's father died in May 1838, resulting in a diminished income for the family .[44] Marx had been emotionally close to his father and treasured his memory after his death.[45] By 183 7, Ma rx was writing both fiction and non-fiction, having completed a short novel, Scorpion and Felix, a dra ma, Oulanem, as well as a number of love poems dedicated to Jenny von Westphalen, though none of this early work was published during his lifetime.[46] Marx soon abandoned fiction for other pursuits, including the study of both English and Italian, art history and the translation of Latin classics.[47] He began co-operating with Bruno Bauer on editing Hegel's Philosophy of Religion in 1840. Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The Differ ence Between the Democritean and Epicur ean Philosophy of Natur e,[48] which he completed in 1841. It was described as "a daring and original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy" .[49] Th e essay was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the Universi ty of Berlin. Marx decided instead to submit his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him [50] Marx's birthplace, now Bruckenstrasse 10, in T rier. The family occupied two rooms on the ground floor and three on the first floor .[23] Purchased by the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928, it now houses a museum devoted to him[24] Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843 his PhD in April 1841.[50] As Marx and Bauer were both atheists, in March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled Archiv des Atheismus (Atheistic Archives), but it never came to fruition. In July , Marx and Bauer took a trip to Bonn fro m Berlin. There they scandalised their class by getting drunk, laughing in church and galloping through the streets on donkeys.[51] Marx was considering an academic career, but this path was barred by the government's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians.[52] M arx moved to Cologne in 1842, where he becam e a journalist, writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung (Rhineland News), expr essing his early views on socialism and his developing interest in economics. Marx criticised both right-wing European governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements whom he thought ineffective or counter -productive.[53] The newspaper attracted the attention of the Prussia n government censors, w ho checked every issue for sed itious material before printing, as Marx lamented: "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be snif fed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear".[54] A fter the Rheinische Zeitung published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy , T sar Nicholas I requested it be banned and Prussia's government complied in 1843.[55] In 184 3, Marx became co-editor of a new , radical leftist Parisian newspaper , the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher (German-Fr ench Annals), then being set up by the German socialist Arnold Ruge t o brin g together German and French radicals[56] and thus Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843. Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue V aneau, they found the living conditions dif ficult, so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.[57] Altho ugh intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter and the only non-German writer was the exiled Russian anarchist collectivist Mikhail Bakunin.[58] Marx contributed two essays to the paper , "Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right"[59] and "On the Jewi sh Question",[60] the latter introducing his belief that the proletariat were a revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism.[61] Only one issue was published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, leadi ng the German states to ban it and seize importe d copies (Ruge nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further issues and his friendship with Marx broke down).[62] After the paper's collapse, Marx began writing for the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper left, Vorwärts! (Forwar d!). Based in Paris, the paper was connected to the League of the Just, a utopian socialist secret society of workers and artisans. Marx attended some of their meetings, but did not join.[63] In V orwärts!, Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuer bachian ideas of dialecti cal materialism, at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in Europe.[64] On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence, beginning a lifelong friendship.[65] Engels showed Marx his recently published The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844,[66][67] convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history .[5][68] S oon, Marx and Engels were collaborating on a criticis m of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, Bruno Bauer. This work was published in 1845 as The Holy Family.[69][70] Although critical of Bauer , Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.[71] During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris (from October 1843 until January 1845),[72] Marx engaged in an inte nsive study of "political economy" (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Mill, etc.),[73] the French socialists (especially Claude Henri St. Simon and Charles Fourier)[74] a nd the history of France.[75] Th e study of political economy is a study that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life[76] and w ould result in his major economic work—the three-volume series called Capital.[77] Marxism i s bas ed in large part on three influences: Hegel's diale ctics, French utopian socialism and English economics. Together with his earlier study of Hegel's dialectics, the studying that Marx did during this time in Paris meant that all major components of "Marxism" (or political economy as Marx called it) were in place by the autumn of 1844.[78] M arx was constantly being pulled away from his study of political economy. Not only by the usual daily demands of the time, but additionally editing a radical newspaper and later the Jenny von W estphalen in the 1830s Paris: 1843–1845 organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years of potentially revolutionary popular uprisings of the citizenry . Still Marx was always drawn back to his economic studies. Marx sought "to understand the inner workings of capitalism".[79] An outline of "Marxism " had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844. Indeed, many features of the Marxist view of the world's political economy had been worked out in great detail, but Marx needed to write down all of the details of his economic world view to further clarify the new economic theory in his own mind.[80] Accordingly , Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts.[81] T hes e man uscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marx's concept of alienated labour.[82] Ho wever , by the spring of 1845 his continued study of political economy , cap ital and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new political economic theory that he was espousing—scientific socialism—needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the world.[83] The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 had been written between April and August 1844, but soon Marx recognised that the Manuscripts had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach. Accordingly , Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach's philosophy in favour of historical materialism, thus a year later (in April 1845) after moving from Paris to Brussels, Marx wrote his eleven "Theses on Feuerbach".[84] The "Theses on Feuerbach" are best known for Thesis 11, which states that "philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change it".[82][85] This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (fo r re ducing practice to theory) overall, criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical world.[82] It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx' s historical materialism, an ar gument that the world is changed not by ide as but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.[82][86] In 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government shut down Vorwärts!, w ith the interior minister , François Guizot, expelling Marx from France.[87] At this point, Marx moved from Paris to Brussels, where Marx hoped to once again continue his study of capitalism and political economy . Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany , Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Be lgium in February 1845. However , to stay in Belgium he had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics.[87] In Brussels, Marx associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph W eydemeyer. In April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels.[87][88] Later , Mary Burns, Engels' long-time companion, left Manchester , England to join Engels in Brussels.[89] In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the leaders of the Chartists, a socialist movement in Britain. This was Marx's first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip. Engels had already spent two years living in Manchester from November 1842[90] to August 1844.[91] Not only did Engels already know the English language,[92] h e had also developed a close relationship with many Chartist leaders.[92] Indee d, Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist and socialist English newspapers.[92] Marx used the trip as an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in various libraries in London and Manchester .[93] In coll aboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, The German Ideology.[94] In this work, Marx broke with Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Max Stirner and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke with Karl Grun a nd other "true socialist s" whose philosophies were still based in part on "idealism". In German Ideology, Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy , which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history .[95] German Ideology is written in a humorously satirical form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship. Like so many other early writings of his, German Ideology would not be published in Marx's lifetime and would be published only in 1932.[82][96][97] Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844, as they eventually became lifelong friends and collaborators Brussels: 1845–1848 After completing German Ideology, M arx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position regarding "the theory and tactics" of a truly "revolutionary proletarian movement" operating from the standpoint of a truly "scientific materialist" philosophy.[98] T his work was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian socialists and Marx's own scientific socialist philosophy . Whereas the utopians believed that people must be persuade d one person at a time to join the socialist movement, the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief, Marx knew that people would tend on most occasions to act in accordance with their own economic interests, thus appealing to an entire class (the working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the class's best material interest would be the best way to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society. This was the intent of the new book that Marx was planning, but to get the manuscript past the government censors he called the book The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)[99] and offere d it as a response to the "petty bourgeois philosophy" of the French anarchist socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as exp ressed in his book The Philosophy of Poverty (1840).[100] These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as The Communist Manifesto. W hile residing in Brussels in 1846, Marx continued his association with the secret radical organisation League of the Just.[101] As noted above, Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe toward the mass movement that would bring about a working class revolution.[102] Howe ver, to organise the working class into a mass movement the League had to cease its "secret" or "under ground" orientation and operate in the open as a political party.[103] M embers of the Leagu e eventually became persuaded in this regard. Accordingly , in June 1847 the League was reorganised by its membership into a new open "above ground" political society that appealed directly to the working classes.[104] T his new open politica l society was called the Communist League.[105] Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing the programme and or ganisational principles of th e new Communist League.[106] In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work — a programme of action for the Communist League. W ritten jointly by Marx and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848, The Communist Manifesto was first publish ed on 21 February 1848.[107] The Communist Manifesto lai d out the beliefs of the new Comm unist League. No long er a secret society , the Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing.[108] The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles".[109] It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (th e wealthy capitalist class) and the proletariat (the industr ial working class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism.[110] Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions and often violent upheavals that became known as the Revolutions of 1848.[111] In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic.[111] Marx was supportive of such activity and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle Lionel Philips since his father's death in 1838) of either 6,000[112] o r 5,000 francs[113][114] h e allegedly used a thir d of it to arm The first edition of The Manifesto of the Communist Party, published in German in 1848 Marx, Engels and Marx's daughters Belgian worke rs wh o were planning revolutionary action.[114] Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed,[112][115] the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused Marx of it, subsequently arresting him and he was forced to flee back to France, where with a new republican government in power he believed that he would be safe.[114][116] Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with variou s German socialists living there.[117] Hoping to see the revol ution spread to Germany , in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany,[118] in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germa ny at that time the bour geoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocra cy before the proletariat could overthrow the bour geoisie.[119] On 1 June, Marx started publication of a daily newspaper , the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, which he helped to fina nce through his recent inheritance from his father . Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the newspaper featured Marx as a pr imary writer and the dominant editorial influence. Despite contributions by fellow members of the Communist League, according to Friedrich Engels it remained "a simple dictatorship by Marx".[120][121][122] Whilst editor of the paper , Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor , committing a press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting,[123][124][125][126] altho ugh each time he was acquitted.[124][126][127] Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in Prussia co llapsed and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other revolutionary elements from the country .[123] Co nsequent ly, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung wa s soon suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May .[122][128] Ma rx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and a cholera epidemic and was soon expelled by the city authorities, who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.[129][130] Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life. The headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London. However, in the winter of 1849–1850 a split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by August Willich and Karl Schapper began agitating for an immediate uprising. Willich and Schapper believed that once the Communist League had initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across Europe would rise "spontaneously" to join it, thus creating revolution across Europe. Marx and Engels protested that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was "adventuristic" and would be suicide for the Communist League.[131] Su ch an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper/W illich group would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe. Marx maintained that this would spell doom for the Communist League itself, arguing that changes in society are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of a handful of men.[131] They are instead brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving toward revolution through different stages of social development. In the present stage of development (circa 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 he felt that the Communist League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms, such as a constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal (male) suffrage. In other words, the working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of the bour geois revolution before stressing the working class agenda and a working class revolution. After a long struggle which threatened to ruin the Communist League, Marx's opinion prevailed and eventually the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League. Meanwhile, Marx also became heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society.[132] Th e Society held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.[133][134] This or ganisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members, some of whom followed Marx while others followed the Cologne: 1848–1849 Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860 Schapper/Willich faction. The issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in the internal split within the Communist League, but Marx lost the fight with the Schapper/W illich faction within the German Worker s' Educational Society and on 17 September 1850 resigned from the Society .[135] In the early period in London, Marx committed himself almost exclusively to revolutionary activities such that his family endured extreme poverty.[136][137] His main income source was Engels, whose source in turn, was his wealthy industrialist father.[137] In Prussia as editor of his own newspaper , and contributor to others ideologically aligned, Marx could reach his audience, the working classes. In London, without finances to run a newspaper , he and Engels turned to international journalism. At one stage they were being published by six newspapers from England, the United States, Prussia, Austria and South Africa.[138] Ma rx's principal earnings came from his work as European correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune (1852-1863),[139] an d from producing articles for "bourgeois" newspapers such as the New York Tribune. Marx had his articles translated from German by W ilhelm Pieper, until his proficiency in English was adequate to being published in.[140] The New York City newspaper , the New York Daily Tribune, or Tribune, was founded in April 1841 by Horace Greeley .[141] The editorial board had progressive bourgeois journalists and publishers, among whom were George Ripley and the journalist Charles Dana. D ana, who was editor -in-chief at the time, and also a fourierist and an abolitionist, was Marx's contact. On 21 March 1857 Dana informed him that due to the economic recession only one article a week would be paid, published or not, the others would only be paid if published. Marx had sent his articles on Tuesdays and Fridays, but that October , the Tribune discharged all its correspondents in Europe except Marx and B. Taylor , and reduced Marx to a weekly article. Between September and November 1860 only five were published . After a six month interval he resumed contributions in September 1861 until March 1862, when Dana wrote to inform him there was no space in the Tribune for reports from London due to Americ an domestic affairs.[142] In 1868, Charles Dana set up a rival newspaper , New York Sun, at which he was editor -in-chief.[143] The "Tribune" was a vehicle for Marx to reach a transatlantic public. The journal had wide working-class appeal from its foundation, at two cents , it was inexpensive [144] a nd at a cir ca 50,000-is sue run, its circulation was the widest in the United States.[145] The editorial ethos was progressive and its anti-slavery stance reflected Greeley's.[146] Marx 's first article for the paper on the British parliamentary elections was published on 21 August 1852.[147] By the late 1850s American popular interest in European affairs waned and Marx's articles turn to topics such as the "slavery crisis" and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, in the "War Between the States".[148] Betw een December 1851 and March 1852, Marx worked on his theoretical work about French Revolution of 1848, entitled The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon,[149] In this he explores concepts in historical materialism, class struggle, dictatorship of the prolet ariat, proletariat victory over the bourgeois state.[150] The 1850s and 1860s mark a philosophical boundary distinguishing the young Marx's Hegelian idealism and the more mature Marx's[151][152][153][154] scientific ideology associated with structural Marxism.[154] Not all scholars accept the distinction.[153][155] F or Marx and Engels, their experience of the Revolutions of 1848 to 1849 were formative in the development of their theory of economics and historical progression. After the "failures" of 1848, the revolutionary impetus appeared spent and not to be renewed without an economic recession. Contention arose between Marx and his fellow communists, whom he denounced as "adventurists". Marx deemed it fanciful to propo se that "will power" could be sufficient to create the revolutionary conditions when in reality the economic component was the necessary requisite. Recession in the United States economy in 1852 gave Marx and Engels grounds for optimism for a revolutionary activity. Y et the United States' economy was seen as too immature for a capitalist revolution. Open territories on America's western frontier dissipated the forces of social unrest. Moreover any economic crisis arising in the United States would not lead to revolutionary contagion of the older Europe an economies of individual nations, which were closed systems bounded by their national borders. When the so-called "Panic of 1857" in the United States spread globally it broke all economic theory models,[156] a nd was the first truly global economic crisis. New Y ork Tribune and Journalism Financial necessity had forced Marx to abandon economic studies in 1844 and give thirteen years working on other projects. He had always sought to return to them. Marx continued to write articles for the New York Daily Tribune as lon g as he was sure that the Tribune's editorial policy was still progressive. However, the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial policy.[157] No longer was the Tribune to be a strong abolitionist paper dedicated to a complete Union victory . The new editorial board supported an imm ediate peace between the Union and the Confederacy in the Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy . Marx strongly disagreed with this new political position and in 1863 was forced to withdraw as a writer for the Tribune.[158] In 1864, Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's Association (also known as the First International),[124] to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.[159] In that organisation, Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).[137] Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.[160] T he most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871, when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. In response to the bloody suppression of this rebel lion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "The Civil War in France", a defence of the Commune.[161][162] Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand capitalism and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying and reflecting on the works of political economists and on economic data.[163] By 1857, Marx had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour , the state and foreign trade and the world market, though this work did not appear in print until 1939 under the title Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy.[164][165][166] Finally in 1859, Marx published A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy,[167] h is first serious economi c work. This work was intended merely as a preview of his three-volume Das Kapital (E nglish title: Capital: Critique of Political Economy), which he intended to publish at a later date. In A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Marx expands on the labour theory of value advocated by David Ricardo. The work was enthusiastically received, and the edition sold out quickly .[168] The successful sales of A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy s timulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three lar ge volumes that would compose his major life's work—Das Kapital an d the Theories of Surplus Value, w hich discussed the theoreticians of political economy , particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo.[137] Theories of Surplus Value is often referred to as the fourth volume book of Das Kapital and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought.[169] In 1867, the first volume of Das Kapital was published, a work which analysed the capitalist process of production.[170] Here Marx elaborated his labour theory of value, w hich had been influen ced by Thomas Hodgskin. Marx acknowledged Hodgskin's "admirable work" Labour Defended against the Claims of Capital a t more than one point in Capital.[171] In deed, Marx quoted Hodgskin as recognising the alienation of labour that occurred under modern capitalist production. No longer was there any "natural reward of individual labour. Each labourer produces only some part of a whole, and each part havin g no value or utility of itself, there is noth ing on which the labourer can seize, and say: 'This is my product, this will I keep to my self'".[172] In this first volume of Capital, Marx outlin ed his conception of surplus value and exploitation, which he argued would ultimately lead to a fal ling rate of profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism.[173] Demand for a Russian language edition of Capital s oon led to the printing of The First International and Capital The first volume of Das Kapital 3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which was published on 27 March 1872. By the autumn of 1871, the entire first edition of the German language edition of Capital had been sold out and a second edition was published. Volumes II and III of Capital remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life. Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx's death.[137] V olume II of Capital was prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name Capital II: The Process of Cir culation of Capital.[174] Volume III of Capital was publish ed a year later in October 1894 under the name Capital III: The Proces s of Capitalist Product ion as a Whole.[175] Theories of Surplus Value was developed from the Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863 which comprise Volumes 30, 31 32 and 33 of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels and from the Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1864 which comprises Volume 34 of the Collected W orks of Marx and Engels. The exact part of the Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863 wh ich makes up the Theories of Surplus Value ar e the last part of Volume 30 of the Collected Works,[176] the whole of Volume 31 of the Collected Works[177] an d the whole of Volume 32 of the Collected Works.[178] A German language abridged edition of Theories of Surplus V alue wa s published in 1905 and in 1910. This abridged edition was translated into English and published in 1951 in London, but the complete unabridged edition of Theories of Surplus Value was published as the "fourth volume" of Capital in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow .[179] During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.[137] He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the Gotha Programme op posed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.[137] This work is also notable for another famous Marx quote: "From each according to his ability , to each according to his need".[180] In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx contemplated the possibility of Rus sia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir.[137][181] While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it (the rural commune) from all sides".[182] Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed that "normal condition s of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist.[182] Ho wever , in the same letter to Vera Zasulich he points out that "at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production".[182] In one of the drafts of this letter , Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology , mo tivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the commun ism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that "the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the Europe an and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type—collective production and appropriation". He added that "the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. so cieties, and, a fortiori , that of modern capitalist societies".[183] Be fore he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Family , Private Property and the State. Marx in the 1870s Marx in 1882 Marx and von Westphale n had seven children together, but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.[184] The children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–1883); Jenny Laura (m. Lafar gue; 1845–191 1); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–1852); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–1898) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). There are allegations that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy ,[185] ou t of wed lock by his housekeeper , Helene Demuth.[186] Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of "Monsieur Ramboz", whilst in London he signed of f his letters as "A. Williams". His friends referred to him as "Moor", owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, while he encouraged his children to call him "Old Nick" and "Charley".[187] He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as "General", his housekeeper Helene as "Lenchen" or "Nym", while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as "Qui Qui, Emperor of China" and another , Laura, was known as "Kakadou" or "the Hottentot".[187] Marx was afflicted by poor health (what he him self described as "the wretchedness of existence")[188] and various authors have sought to describe and explain it. His biographer Werner Blumenber g attributed it to liver and gall problems which Marx had in 1849 and from which he was never afterwards free, exacerbated by an unsuitable lifestyle. The attack s often came with headaches, eye inflammation, neuralgia in the head and rheumatic pains. A serious nervous disorder appeared in 1877 and protracted insomnia was a consequence, which Marx fought with narcotics. The illness was aggravated by excessive nocturnal work and faulty diet. Marx was fond of highly seasoned dishes, smoked fish, caviare, pickled cucumbers, "none of which are good for liver patients", but he also liked wine and liqueurs and smoked an enormous amount "and since he had no money , it was usually bad-quality cigars". From 1863, Marx complained a lot about boils: "These are very frequent with liver patients and may be due to the same causes".[189] The abscesses were so bad that Marx could neither sit nor work upright. According to Blumenber g, Marx's irritability is often found in liver patients: The illness emphasised certain traits in his character . He argued cuttingly , his biting satire did not shrink at insults, and his expressions could be rude and cruel. Though in general Marx had a blind faith in his closest friends, nevertheless he himself complained that he was sometimes too mistrustful and unjust even to them . His verdicts, not only about enemies but even about friends, were sometimes so harsh that even less sensitive people would take offence… There must have been few whom he di d not criticize like this… not even Engels was an exception.[190] According to Princeton historian J.E. Seigel, in his late teens Marx may have had pneumonia or pleurisy , the effects of which led to his being exempted from Prussian military service. In later life whilst working on Capital (which he never completed),[191] Marx suf fered from a trio of afflictions. A liver ailment, probably hereditary , was aggravated by ove rwork, bad diet and lack of sleep. Inflammation of the eyes was induced by too much work at night. A third affliction, eruption of carbuncles or boils, "was probably brought on by general physical debility to which the various features of Marx's style of life — alco hol, tobacco, poor diet, and failure Personal life Family Jenny Carolina and Jenny Laura Marx (1869): all the Marx daughters were named Jenny in honour of their mother , Jenny von W estphalen. Health to sleep — all contributed. Engels often exhorted Marx to alter this dangerous regime". In Profes sor Siegel's thesis, what lay behind this punishing sacrifice of his health may have been guilt about self-involvement and egoism, originally induced in Karl Marx by his father .[192] In 2007, a retrodiagnosis of Marx's skin disease was made by dermatologist Sam Shuster of Newcastle University and for Shuster the most probab le explanation was that Marx suffere d not from liver problems, but from hidradenitis suppurativa, a recurring infective condition arising from blockage of apocrine ducts opening into hair follicles. This condit ion, which was not described in the English medical literature until 1933 (hence would not have been known to Marx's physicians), can produce joint pain (which could be misdiagnosed as rheumatic disorder) and painful eye conditions. To arrive at his retrodiagnosi s, Shuster considered the primary material: the Marx correspondence published in the 50 volumes of the Marx/Engels Collected Works. There, "although the skin lesions were called 'furuncules', 'boils' and 'carbuncles' by Marx, his wife and his physicians, they were too persistent, recurrent, destructive and site-spec ific for that diagnosis". The sites of the persistent 'carbuncles' were noted repeatedly in the armpits, groins, perianal, genital (penis and scrotum) and suprapubic r egion s and inner thighs, "favoured sites of hidradenitis suppurativa". Professor Shuster claimed the diagnosis "can now be made definitively".[193] Shuster went on to consider the potential psychosocial ef fects of the disease, noting that the skin is an organ of communication and that hidradenitis suppurativa produces much psychological distress, including loathing and disgust and depression of self-image, mood and well-being, feelings for which Shuster found "much evidence" in the Marx correspond ence. Professor Shuster went on to ask himself whether the mental effects of the disease affected Marx's work and even helped him to develop his theory of alienation.[194] Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a catarrh tha t kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883 (age 64), dying a stateless person.[195] Family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery (East ), London, on 17 March 1883 in an area reserved for agnostics and atheists (George Eliot's grav e is nearby). There were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.[196][197] Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels' speech included the passage: On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair , peacefully gone to sleep—but forever .[198] Marx's surviving daughte rs Eleanor and Laura, as well as Charles Longuet and Paul Lafar gue, Marx's two French socialist sons-in- law, were also in attendance.[197] He had been predeceased by his wife and his eldest daughter , the latter dying a few months earlier in Janu ary 1883. Liebkne cht, a founder and leader of the German Social Democratic Party, gave a speech in German and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.[197] Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.[197] T ogether with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.[197] Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne communist trial of 1852; G. Lochne r, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League"; and Carl Death Memorial to Karl Marx, East Highgate Cemetery, London Schorlemmer, a pro fessor of chemistry in Manchester , a member of the Royal Society and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.[197] An other attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester, a Bri tish zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.[197] Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his $4.8 million estate.[185] Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954. The tomb at the new site, unveiled on 14 March 1956,[199] b ears the carved messag e: "WORKERS OF ALL LANDS UNITE", the final line of The Communist Manifesto; and from the 11th "Thesis on Feuerbach" (edited by Engels): "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways—the point however is to change it".[200] The Communist Party of Great Britain h ad the mon ument with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw erected and Marx's original tomb had only humble adornment.[200] In 1970, there was an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the monument using a homemade bomb.[201] The late Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm rem arked: "One cannot say Marx died a failure" because although he had not achieved a large followi ng of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. With in 25 years of his death, the contine ntal European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics were each gaining between 15 and 47 per cent in those countries with representative democratic elections.[202] Marx's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers including, but not limited to: Lycurgus' philosophy , including the forceful and equal r edistribution of resources (land) and the equality of all citizens[203] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy[204] The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo[205] French socialist thought,[205] in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de Saint-Simon, Pierre- Joseph Proudhon and Charles Fourier[206][207] Earlier German philosophical materialism among the Young Hegelians, particularly that of Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer,[71] as well as the French materialism of the late 18th century , including Diderot, Claude Adrien Helvétius and d'Holbach The working class analysis by Friedrich Engels,[5] as well as the early descriptions of class provided by French liberals and Saint-Simonians such as François Guizot and Augustin Thierry Marx's Judaic legacy has been identified as formative to both his moral outlook[208] and his materialist philosophy.[209] Marx's view of history , which came to be called historical materialism (controvers ially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism b y Engels and Lenin), certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically.[204] Ho wever , Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist ter ms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.[82][204] Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.[204] He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it up on its feet.[204] De spite his dislike of mystical terms, Marx used Gothic language in several of his works and in The Capital h e refers to capital as "necromancy that surrounds the products of labour".[210] Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,[205] Marx criticised utopian socialists, ar guing that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities would be bound to mar ginalisation and poverty and that only a lar ge-scale change in the economic system can bring about real change.[207] Thought Influences The other important contribution to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution.[5] Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx therefore concluded that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However , Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his "Theses on Feuerbach" that "philo sophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it" and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.[10][200] Marx's polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique and thus he has been called "the first great user of critical method in social sciences".[204][205] H e criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology .[211] By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.[205] This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.[10] Like Tocqu eville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic despotism with no identifiable despot,[212] Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with Montesquieu, who discussed the nature of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to analyse "the despotism of capital".[213] Fundamentally , Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, whic h encompasses both human beings and material objects.[214] Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.[215][216] Fo r bo th Ma rx and Hegel, self- development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective age nt, renders its potent ial counterpart an object to be apprehended.[216] Marx further argues that by moulding nature[217] in des ired ways[218] the subject takes the object as its own and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, the human nature—Gattungswesen, or species-being—exists as a function of human labour.[215][216][218] Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that in order for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.[219] Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his own work",[220] but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.[221] Ma rx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expre ssion, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects".[219] Co nsequent ly, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour" and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "labour power".[82] The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. — Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[222] Marx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour power.[223] He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation.[224] As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegeli an notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.[223] Capit alism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) Philosophy and social thought Human nature The philosophers G. W . F. Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach, whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx Labour , class struggle and false consciou sness through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.[223] Fo r Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour—one's capacity to transform the world—is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature and it is a spiritual loss.[223] Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt.[225] Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false consciousness",[226] w hich relates closely to the understanding of ideology . By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history , but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.[227] Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of productio n includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods, but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).[82][228] An ex ample of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface[229] to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right: Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusio ns about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.[230] Whereas his Gymnasium s enior thesis at the Gymnasium zu T rier ar gued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic status quo and inequality.[231] Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour,[232] say ing that British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children’ s blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children".[233][234] Marx's thoughts on labou r were related to the prim acy he gave to the economic relation in determining the society's past, present and future (see also economic determinism).[204][207][235] Accumulation of capital shapes the social system.[207] For Marx, social change was about conflict between opposing interests, driven in the background by economic forces.[204] This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.[235] In his evolutionary model of history , he argued that human history began with free, productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.[204] Marx noted that this was not an intentional process, rather no individual or even state can go against the forces of economy .[207] The organisation of soci ety depends on means of production. Literally , those things, like land, natural resources and technology , necessary for the production of material goods and the relations of production. In other words, the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of produc tion.[235] T oget her, these compose the mode of production and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of distinct modes of production. Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, with the base (or substructure) referring to the economic system and superstructure, to the cultural and political system.[235] M arx regarded this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict.[235] Despite Marx's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society tha t should replace it, his explicit critique of capitalism is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (slavery and feudal).[82] Marx also never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, although scholars agree that his work contained implicit d iscu ssion of those concepts.[82] Marx's view of capitalism was two-sided.[82][152] On one hand, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system he noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment, while on the other hand capitalism is also characterised by "revolutionising, industrialising and universalising Economy , history and society qualities of development, growth and progre ssivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and growth, rationality and scientific revolution) that are responsible for progress.[82][152][204] Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism an d its transition to capitalism.[207][236] Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist can and has an incentive to reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.[223] According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practica lly every successful industry, input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "surplus value" and argued that this surplus value had its source in surplus labour, th e dif ference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce.[82] Marx 's dual view of capitalism can be seen in his description of the capitalists: he refers to them as vampires sucking worker's blood, but at the same time[204] he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice"[82] a nd that capitalists simply cannot go against the system.[207] T he true problem lies with the "cancerous cell" of capital, understood not as property or equipment, but the relations between workers and owners—the economic system in general.[207] At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable and prone to periodic crises.[96] He su ggested that over time capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies and less and less in labour .[82] Since Marx believed that surplus value appropri ated from labour is the source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew.[173] Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle o f growth, collapse and more growth.[173] More over, he believed that in the long-term, this process would necessarily enrich and empower the capitalis t class and impoverish the proletaria t.[173][207] In section one of The Communist Manifesto, M arx describes feudalism, ca pitalism and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process: We se e then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bour geoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder . Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bour geois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bour geois property; on the contrary , they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bour geois society , endanger the existence of bour geois property.[8] Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society: The development of Modern Industry , therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bour geoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.[8] Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow , whose inscription reads: "Proletarians of all countries, unite!" Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop class consciousness, in time realising that they have to and can change the system.[204][207] M arx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing exploiting class and introduce a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.[204] Marx argued in The German Ideology that capitalism will end through the or ganised actions of an international working class: Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence.[237] In this new society , the self-alienation would end and humans would be free to act without being bound by the labour market.[173] It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.[207] In such a utopian wo rld there would also be little if any need for a state, which goal was to enforce the alienation.[173] He theoris ed that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, a dictatorship of the prole tariat—a period where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production—would exist.[207] As he wrote in his Critique of the Gotha Program, "betw een capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other . Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat".[238] While he allowed for the possibilit y of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the United States and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries in which workers can not "attain their goal by peaceful means" the "lever of our revolution must be force".[239] Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought.[10][11][240][241] Fo llowers of Marx have frequently debated amongst themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and apply his concepts to the modern world.[242] T he legacy of Marx's thought has become contested between numerous tendencies, each of which sees itself as Marx's most accurate interpreter . In the polit ical realm, these tendencies include Leninism, Marxism–Leninism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxembur gism and libertarian Marxism.[242] V arious currents have also developed in academic Marxism, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism.[242] From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology . H e has been cited as one of the nineteenth century's three masters of the "school of suspicion" alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud[243] and as one of the three principal architects of modern social science alo ng with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.[244] In contrast to other philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method.[10] Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation a nd new developments in the philosophies of history and science. Working in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean sociological positivism in attempt to develop a science of society.[245] Karl Löwith considered Marx and Søren Kierkegaard to be the two greatest Hegelian philosophical successors.[246] In modern sociological theory, Marxist Marx believed that industrial workers (the proletariat) would rise up around the world. Legacy Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels monument in Marx-Engels-Forum, Berlin-Mitte sociology i s reco gnised as one of the main classical perspectives. Isaiah Berlin considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology "in so far as anyone can claim the title".[247] Beyond social science, he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy , literature, the arts and the humanities.[248][249][250][251] In soc ial theory , twentieth- and twenty-first-cen tury, thinkers have pursued two main strateg ies in response to Marx. One move has been to reduce it to its anal ytical core, known as analytical Marxism. Another, mo re common move has been to dilute the explanatory claims of Marx's social theory and to emph asise the "relative autonomy" of aspects of social and economic life not directly related to Marx's central narrativ e of interaction between the development of the "forces of produc tion" and the succession of "modes of production". Such has been for example the neo-marxist theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marx's social theory, such as E. P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. It has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists like Antonio Gramsci who have sought to understand the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice, seen in the light of Marxist social theory.[252][253][254][255] Marx's ideas would also have a profound influence on subsequent artists and art history , with avant-garde movements across literature, visual art, music, film and theater .[256] Politically, Marx's legacy is more complex. Throughout the twentieth century, revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves "Marxist", most notably the Russian Revolution, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union.[257] Major world leaders including Vladimir Lenin,[257] Mao Zedong,[258] Fidel Castro,[259] Salvador Allende,[260] Josip Broz Tito,[261] Kwame Nkrumah[262] and Thomas Sankara all cited Marx as an influence and his ideas informed political parties worldwide beyond those where Marxist revolutions took place.[263] The countries associated with some Marxist nations have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths,[264] b ut the fidelity of these varied revolutionaries, leaders and parties to Marx's work is highly contested and rejected by many Marxists.[265] It is now common to distinguish between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically and the legacy and influence of those who shaped his ideas for political purposes.[266] The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law, 1842 Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, 1843 "On the Jewish Question", 1843 "Notes on James Mill", 1844 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 1844 The Holy Family, 1845 "Theses on Feuerbach", 1845 The German Ideology, 1845 The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847 "Wage Labour and Capital", 1847 Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848 The Class Struggles in France, 1850 The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, 1852 Grundrisse, 1857 A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859 Writings on the U.S. Civil W ar, 1861 Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes, 1862 "Value, Price and Profit", 1865 Capital, V olume I (Das Kapital), 1867 "The Civil W ar in France", 1871 Map of countries that declared themselves to be socialist states under the Marxist–Leninist or Maoist definition between 1979 and 1983, which marked the greatest territorial extent of socialist states Selected bibliography Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875 "Notes on Adolph Wagner", 1883 Capital, Volume II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885 Capital, Volume III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894 Criticism of Marxism Karl Marx House Karl Marx in film Marxian class theory Marxian economics Marx Memorial Library Marx's method Marx Reloaded Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx Political Economy Pre-Marx socialists Timeline of Karl Marx 1. Marx became a Fellow (http://www .calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmV iewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmV iew.Catalog&id=RSA%2 fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9) of the highly prestigious Royal Society of Arts, London, in 1862. 2. Babbage pages (http://arch.oucs.ox.ac.uk/detail/94555/index.html) 3. Mehring, Franz, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003) p. 75 4. John Bellamy Foster . "Marx's Theory of Meta bolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 105, No. 2 (September 1999), pp. 366– 405. 5. T. B. Bottomore (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist thought (https://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=P A108). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1. Retrieved 5 March 2011. 6. Allen Oakley , Marx's Critique of Political Economy: 1844 to 1860 (https://books.google.com/books?id=L949AAAAIAA J&dq), Routledge, 1984, p. 51. 7. The name "Karl Heinrich Marx", used in various lexicons, is based on an error . His birth certificate says "Carl Heinrich Marx", and elsewhere "Karl Marx" is used. "K. H. Marx" is used only in his poetry collections and the transcript of his dissertation; because Marx wanted to honour his father, who had died in 1838, he called himself "Karl Heinrich" in three documents.The article (https://archive.org/stream/handwrterbuchder04conr#page/1130/mod e/1up) by Friedrich Engels "Marx, Karl Heinrich" in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (Jena, 1892, column 1130 to 1133 see MECW Volume 22, pp. 337–345) does not justify as signing Marx a middle name. See Heinz Monz: Karl Marx. Grundlagen zu Leben und Werk. NCO-Verlag, Trier 1973, p. 214 and 354, respectively . 8. Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848).The Communist Manifesto (http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works /1848/commu nist-manifesto/index.htm) 9. Karl Marx: Critique of the Gotha Program (http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works /1875/gotha/index.htm) 10. Calhoun 2002, pp. 23–24 11. "Marx the millennium's 'greatest thinker'" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm). BBC News World Online. 1 October 1999. Retrieved 23 November 2010. 12. Roberto Mangabeira Unger. Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007. 13. John Hicks, "Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern." The American Economic Review 64.2 (May 1974) p. 307: "The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history ..." See also Notes References 14. Joseph Schumpeter Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keyne s. Volume 26 of Unwin University books. Edition 4, Taylor & Francis Group, 1952 ISBN 0415110785, 9780415110785 15. "Karl Marx to John Maynard Keynes: T en of the greatest economists by V ince Cable" (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ho me/moslive/article-2014647/Karl-Marx-John-Maynard-Keynes-T en-greatest-economists-Vince-Cable.html). Daily Mail. 16 July 2007. Retrieved 7 December 2012. 16. Little, Daniel. "Marxism and Method" (http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%20 3.htm). 17. Kim, Sung Ho (2017). Zalta, Edward N., ed. "Max Weber" (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/webe r/). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 10 December 2017. "Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim." 18. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 7; Wheen 2001, pp. 8, 12; McLellan 2006, p. 1. 19. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 4–5; Wheen 2001, pp. 7–9, 12; McLellan 2006, pp. 2–3. 20. Carroll, James (2002-04-01). Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews -- A History (https://books.google.com/ books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=P A419). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 419. ISBN 0547348886. 21. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 4–6; McLellan 2006, pp. 2–4. 22. Raddatz Karl Marx: A Political Biography 23. McLellan 2006, p. 178, Plate 1. 24. Wheen 2001. pp. 12–13. 25. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 5, 8–12; Wheen 2001, p. 11; McLellan 2006, pp. 5–6. 26. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 7; Wheen 2001, p. 10; McLellan 2006, p. 7. 27. Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3 28. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 12; Wheen 2001, p. 13. 29. McLellan 2006, p. 7. 30. Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography . Volume 37. pp. 57-58. Published Oxford University Press, 2004 (ISBN 0198613873). 31. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 12–15; Wheen 2001, p. 13; McLellan 2006, pp. 7–11. 32. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 15–16; Wheen 2001, p. 14; McLellan 2006, p. 13. 33. Wheen 2001, p. 15. 34. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 20; McLellan 2006, p. 14. 35. Wheen 2001, p. 16; McLellan 2006, p. 14. 36. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 21–22; McLellan 2006, p. 14. 37. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 22; Wheen 2001, pp. 16–17; McLellan 2006, p. 14. 38. Fedoseyev 1973, p. 23; Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 23–30; Wheen 2001, pp. 16–21, 33; McLellan 2006, pp. 15, 20. 39. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 70–71; Wheen 2001, pp. 52–53; McLellan 2006, pp. 61–62. 40. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 31; McLellan 2006, p. 15. 41. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 33; McLellan 2006, p. 21. 42. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 32–34; Wheen 2001, pp. 21–22; McLellan 2006, pp. 21–22. 43. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 34–38; Wheen 2001, p. 34; McLellan 2006, pp. 25–27. 44. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 44,69–70; McLellan 2006, pp. 17–18. 45. Sperber 2013, pp. 55–56. 46. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 33; McLellan 2006, pp. 18–19. These love poems would be published posthumously in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 1 (New York: International Publishers, 1975) pp. 531–632. 47. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 33; Wheen 2001, pp. 25–26. 48. Marx's thesis was posthumously published in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 1 (New York: International Publishers, 1975) pp . 25–107. 49. Wheen 2001. p. 32. 50. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 45; Wheen 2001, p. 33; McLellan 2006, pp. 28–29, 33. 51. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 38–45; Wheen 2001, p. 34; McLellan 2006, pp. 32–33, 37. 52. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 49; McLellan 2006, p. 33. 53. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 50–51; Wheen 2001, pp. 34–36, 42–44; McLellan 2006, pp. 35–47. 54. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 57; Wheen 2001, p. 47; McLellan 2006, pp. 48–50. 55. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 60–61; Wheen 2001, pp. 47–48; McLellan 2006, pp. 50–51. 56. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 68–69, 72; Wheen 2001, p. 48; McLellan 2006, pp. 59–61 57. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 77–79; Wheen 2001, pp. 62–66; McLellan 2006, pp. 73–74, 94. 58. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 72; Wheen 2001, pp. 64–65; McLellan 2006, pp. 71–72. 59. Marx, Karl, "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law", contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1975) p. 3. 60. Marx, Karl, "On the Jewish Question", contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 3, p. 146. 61. McLellan 2006, pp. 65–70, 74–80. 62. Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 72, 75–76; Wheen 2001, p. 65; McLellan 2006, pp. 88–90. 63. Wheen 2001, pp. 66–67, 112; McLellan 2006, pp. 79–80. 64. Wheen 2001, p. 90. 65. Wheen 2001. p. 75. 66. Mansel, Philip: Paris Between Empires, p. 390 (St. Martin Press, NY) 2001 67. Frederick Engels, "The Condition of the Working Class in England", contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 4 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1975) pp. 295–596. 68. P. N. Fedoseyev , Karl Marx: A Biography (Progress Publishers: Moscow , 1973) p. 82. 69. Wheen 2001. pp. 85–86. 70. Karl Marx, "The Holy Family", contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 4, pp. 3– 211. 71. Several authors elucidated this for long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical development, such as Ernie Thomson in The Discovery of the Materialist Conception of History in the Writings of the Y oung Karl Marx, New York, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004; for a short account see Max Stirner , a durable dissident (http://www .lsr-projekt.de/pol y/eninnuce.html) 72. Taken from the caption of a picture of the hou se in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 in the book "Karl Marx: A Biography", written by a team of historians and writers headed by P . N. Fedoseyev (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973). 73. P. N. Fedoseyev , et al. Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 63. 74. Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Oxford University Press: London, 1963) pp. 90–94. 75. P. N. Fedoseyev et al., Karl Marx: A Biography (Progress Publishers: Moscow , 1973) p. 62. 76. Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to V olume 28 of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1986) p. XII 77. Karl Marx, Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 35, Volume 36 and Volume 37 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1996, 1997 and 1987) . 78. Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment, pp. 35–61. 79. P. N. Fedoseyev , et al., Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 62. 80. Note 54 contained on page 598 in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 3. 81. Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1975) pp. 229–346. 82. "Karl Marx – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/).. First published T ue 26 August 2003; substantive revision Mon 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2011. 83. P. N. Fedoseyev , Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 83. 84. Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 5 (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14. 85. Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 5, p. 8. 86. Doug Lorimer, in Friedrich Engels (1999). Socialism: utopian and scientific (https://books.google.com/books?id=_A7 P0fL_kYsC&pg=P A34). Resistance Books. pp. 34–36. ISBN 978-0-909196-86-8. Retrieved 7 March 2011. 87. Wheen 2001. p. 90 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=P A90). 88. Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing H ouse"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101 89. Heinrich Gemkow, et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography, p. 102. 90. Heinrich Gemkow, et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing Ho use]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53 91. Heinrich Gemkow, et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography, p. 78. 92. P. N. Fedoseyev , et al., Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 89. 93. Wheen 2001. p. 92. 94. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1976) pp. 19–539. 95. P. N. Fedoseyev , et al., Karl Marx: A Biography, pp. 96–97. 96. Baird, Forrest E.; W alter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River , New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6. 97. Wheen 2001. p. 93. 98. See Note 71 on p. 672 of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 6 (International Publishers: New York, 1976). 99. Karl Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 6(International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212. 100. Wheen 2001. p. 107. 101. P. N. Fedoseyev , Karl Marx: A Biography (Progress Publishers, Moscow , 1973) p. 124. 102. Note 260 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 11 (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672. 103. Note 260 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 11, p. 672. 104. P. N. Fedoseyev ,et al., Karl Marx: A Biography, pp. 123–125. 105. P. N. Fedoseyev , et al, Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 125. 106. Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6 (International Publishers, New Y ork, 1976) pp. 341–357. 107. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 6, pp. 477–519. 108. Wheen 2001. p. 115. 109. Chris Shilling; Philip A Mellor (2001). The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life (https://b ooks.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=P A114). SAGE Publications. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7619-6549-7. 110. Marx and Engels 1848. 111. Wheen 2001. p. 125. 112. Maltsev; Yuri N. Requiem for Marx (https://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=P A93). Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-61016-116-9. Retrieved 9 March 2011. 113. Saul Kussiel Padover, Karl Marx, an intimate biography, McGraw-Hill, 1978, page 205 114. Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127. 115. David McLellan 1973 Karl Marx: His life and Thought. New York: Harper and Row . pp. 189–190 116. Felix, David (1982). "Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician". Central European History. Cambridge University Press. 15 (4): 332–350. doi:10.1017/S0008938900010621 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS00089389000106 21). JSTOR 4545968 (https://www .jstor.org/stable/4545968). 117. Wheen 2001. p. 128. 118. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 7 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1977) pp. 3–6. 119. Wheen 2001. p. 129. 120. Wheen 2001. pp. 130–132. 121. Seigel, p. 50 122. Doug Lorimer. Introduction. In Karl Marx. The Class Struggles in France: From the February Revolution to the Paris Commune (https://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=P A6). Resistance Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1- 876646-19-6. Retrieved 9 March 2011. 123. Wheen 2001. pp. 136–137. 124. Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter (https://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpk C&pg=PA192). READ BOOKS. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. Retrieved 9 March 2011. 125. Slavko Splichal (2002). Principles of publicity and press freedom (https://books.google.com/books?id=u8fO_b0lxDA C&pg=PA115). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7425-1615-1. Retrieved 9 March 2011. 126. Franz Mehring (24 September 2003). Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (https://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-j dsC&pg=PR19). Psychology Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-415-31333-9. Retrieved 9 March 2011. 127. Gross, David M. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful T ax Resistance Campaigns. Picket Line Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1490572741. 128. Wheen 2001. pp. 137–146. 129. Wheen 2001. pp. 147–148. 130. Peter Watson (22 June 2010). The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the T wentieth Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=P A250). HarperCollins. pp. 250–. 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Archived from the original (http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biograp hy/) on 1 September 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2011. 138. Jonathan Sperber, Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life, p. 295. 139. Richard Kluger, The Paper: The Life and Death of the New Y ork Herald T ribune (Alfred A. Knoft Publishing Co.: New York, 1986) p. 17. 140. Karl, Marx (2007). James Ledbetter , ed. Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-144192-4. 141. P. N. Fedoseyev , Karl Marx: A Biography, 274. 142. Marx & Engels Collected W orks, vol.41 (https://ia801605.us.archive.org/29/items/MarxEngelsCollectedW orksVolume 10MKarlMarx/Marx%20%26%20Engels%20Collected%20W orks%20Volume%2041_%20Ka%20-%20Karl%20Marx. pdf) 143. Richard Kluger , The Paper: The Life and Death of the New Y ork Herald T ribune (Alfred A. Knopt Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121. 144. Taken from a picture on page 327 of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 11 (International Publishers: New York, 1979). 145. Richard Kluger, The Paper: The Life and Death of the New Y ork Herald T ribune, p. 14. 146. Richard Kluger , The Paper: The Life and Death of the New Y ork Herald T ribune (Alfred A. Knoft: New Y ork, 1986), p, 82. 147. Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – T ories and Whigs" contained in theCollected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 11 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1979) pp. 327–332. 148. Note 1 at page 367 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: V olume 19 (International Publishers: New York, 1984). 149. Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the Collected Works of KarlMarx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11 (International Publishers: New Y ork, 1979) pp. 99–197. 150. Karl Marx (30 March 2008). 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Norton & Co. ISBN 978- 0871404671. Stedman Jones, Gareth (2016). Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978- 0-713-99904-4. Stokes, Philip (2004). Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers. Kettering: Index Books. ISBN 978-0- 572-02935-7. Vygodsky , Vitaly (1973). The Story of a Great Discovery: How Karl Marx wrote "Capital". Verlag Die Wirtschaft. Wheen, Francis (2001). Karl Marx. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-1-85702-637-5. Barnett, V incent. Marx (Routledge, 2009) Berlin, Isaiah. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Oxford University Press, 1963) ISBN 0-19-520052-7 Blumenberg, W erner (2000). Karl Marx: An Illustrated Biography. trans. Douglas Scott. London; New Y ork: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-254-2. Hobsbawm, E. J. (2004). "Marx, Karl Heinrich". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/39021. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. McLellan, David. Karl Marx: his Life and Thought Harper & Row , 1973 ISBN 978-0-06-012829-6 Mehring, Franz. Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003) Bibliography Further r eading Biographies McLellan, David. Marx before Marxism (1980), Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6 Rubel, Maximilien. Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work (Blackwell, 1975) ISBN 0-631- 15780-8 Segrillo, Angelo. Karl Marx: An Overview of his Biographies (LEA W orking Paper Series, nº 3, Jan. 2018 ). Sperber, Jonathan. Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life (W.W. Norton & Company; 2013) 648 pages; by a leading academic scholar Stedman Jones, Gareth. Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion (Allen Lane, 2016). ISBN 978-0-713-99904-4. Walker , Frank Thomas. 'Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography. (bj.publications), 2009. Wheen, Francis. Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3 Althusser , Louis. For Marx. London: V erso, 2005. Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. Reading Capital. London: V erso, 2009. Attali, Jacques. Karl Marx or the thought of the world. 2005 Avineri, Shlomo. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx (Cambridge University Press, 1968) ISBN 0-521- 09619-7 Axelos, Kostas. Alienation, Praxis, and T echne in the Thought of Karl Marx (translated by Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976). Blackledge, Paul. Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History (Manchester University Press, 2006) Blackledge, Paul. Marxism and Ethics (SUNY Press, 2012) Bottomore, T om, ed. A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. Callinicos, Alex (2010) [1983]. The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury , London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1- 905192-68-7. Cleaver, Harry. Reading Capital Politically (AK Press, 2000) G. A. Cohen. Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-691-07068-7 Collier, Andrew . Marx (Oneworld, 2004) Draper, Hal, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4 volumes) Monthly Review Press Duncan, Ronald and Wilson, Colin. (editors) Marx Refuted, (Bath, UK, 1987) ISBN 0-906798-71-X Eagleton, T erry. Why Marx W as Right (New Haven & London: Y ale University Press, 2011). Fine, Ben. Marx's Capital. 5th ed. London: Pluto, 2010. Foster, John Bellamy. Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New Y ork: Monthly Review Press, 2000. Gould, Stephen Jay. A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester, Page 1, Find Articles.com (1999) Harvey, David. A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: V erso, 2010. Harvey, David. The Limits of Capital. London: V erso, 2006. Henry, Michel. Marx I and Marx II. 1976 Holt, Justin P . The Social Thought of Karl Marx. Sage, 2015. Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."(W esleyan University Press, 1997, 2005) Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978 Little, Daniel. The Scientific Marx, (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) ISBN 0-8166-1505-5 Mandel, Ernest. Marxist Economic Theory. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970. Mandel, Ernest. The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977. Mészáros, István. Marx's Theory of Alienation (The Merlin Press, 1970) Miller, Richard W . Analyzing Marx: Morality , Power, and History. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1984. Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour , and Social Domination: A Rein terpretation of Marx's Critical Theory . Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Commentaries on Marx Works by Karl Marx at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Karl Marx at Internet Archive Works by Karl Marx at LibriV ox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Karl Marx (in German) at Zeno.org Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Karl Marx". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Marxists.org, homepage of the Marxists Internet Archive Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1989). Karl Marx: a Biography (4 ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. Krader , Lawrence, ed. (1974). The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx (PDF) (2 ed.). Assen: V an Gorcum. The Collected Works of Ma rx and Engels, in English translation and in 50 volumes, are published in London by Lawrence & Wishart and in New York by International Publishers.[1] T hey are available online and searchable, for purchase or through subscribing libraries, in the "Social Theory" collection published by Alexander Street Press in collaboration with the University of Chicago. Dead Labour: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by Paul Craig Roberts Hegel, Marx, Engels, and the Origins of Marxism, by David North In Praise of Marx Terry Eagleton synopsising his Why Marx was right chronicle.com 10 April 2011. Karl Marx: An Overview of his Biographies, by Angelo Segrillo Karl Marx: Did he get it all Right? by Philip Collins, The T imes, 21 October 2008 Karl Marx, Ernest Mandel Liberalism, Marxism and The State, by Ralph Raico Marx, Mao and mathematics: the politics of infinitesimals, by Joseph Dauben Rothbard, Murray. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought V olume II: Classical Economics (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) ISBN 0-945466-48-X Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Con temporary Capitalism. London: Routledge, 2002. Schmidt, Alfred. The Concept of Nature in Marx. London: NLB, 1971. Seigel, J. E. (1973). "Marx's Early Development: V ocation, Rebellion and Realism". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. The MIT Press. 3 (3): 475–508. JSTOR 202551. Seigel, Jerrold. Marx's fate: the shape of a life (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-271-00935-7 Strathern, Paul. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001) Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. Uno, Kozo. Principles of Political Economy . Theory of a Purely Capitalist Society, Brighton, Sussex: Harvester; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities, 1980. Vianello, F . [1989], "Ef fective Demand and the Rate of Profits: Some Thoughts on Marx, Kalecki and Sraffa", in: Sebastiani, M. (ed.), Kalecki's Relevance T oday, London, Macmillan, ISBN 978-03-12-02411-6. Wendling, Amy . Karl Marx on T echnology and Alienation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) Wheen, Francis. Marx's Das Kapital, (Atlantic Books, 2006) ISBN 1-84354-400-8 Wilson, Edmund. To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History, Garden City , NY: Doubleday , 1940 Barker, Jason. Marx Returns, Winchester , UK: Zero Books, 2018, ISBN 9781785356605. Shuster, Sam (2008). "The nature and consequence of Karl Marx's skin disease". British Journal of Dermatology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 158 (1): 071106220718011. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08282.x. Fiction works Medical articles External links Articles and entries Marxism and Ethics from International Socialism Paul Blackledge (2008) Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpre tations of Marx Portraits of Karl Marx (International Institute of Social History) Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution Karl Marx (1818–1883). The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Library of Economics and Liberty (2nd ed.). Liberty Fund. 2008. Marx's Revenge: How Class Struggle Is Shaping the W orld. TIME, 25 March 2013. Marx Was Right: Five Surprising W ays Karl Marx Predicted 2014. Rolling Stone, 30 January 2014. Karl Marx Was Right. Chris Hedges for Truthdig, 31 May 2015. 1. These volumes were at one time put online by the Marxists Internet Archive, until the original publishers objected on copyright grounds: "Marx/Engels Collected W orks" (https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/work s/cw/index.htm). Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved March 3, 2018. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl_Marx&oldid=837580765" This page was last edited on 21 April 2018, at 18:48. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply . By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.